To begin with, the concept of a "nation" in Himiko's time was very different from our modern understanding of a country. The Three Kingdoms of Wei, Shu, and Wu described in the Records of the Three Kingdoms can rightly be understood as nations in the modern sense. But when it comes to places like Tsushima, Ito, or Yamatai—mentioned in the Gishi Wajinden—these appear to have been more like tribes within a larger cultural sphere referred to as "Wa."
In fact, the term "Wa" itself is not framed as a unified nation-state in the text. The source is titled not The Chronicle of the Wa Country, but rather The Chronicle of the Wa People in the Wei History (Gishi Wajinden), suggesting a loosely defined region inhabited by Wa people rather than a distinct political entity. Moreover, this "Wa" region was not limited to the Japanese archipelago as we know it today; it appears to have included the southern part of the Korean Peninsula as well.
The Wa people, it seems, were divided into more than a hundred tribes scattered across the southern Korean Peninsula and the Japanese archipelago, often engaged in conflict with one another. That was the situation in Wa before Himiko came onto the scene.
But with the emergence of Himiko, a unification began to take shape. Yamatai became the leading power, forming a confederation—or what we might call a Wa federation—with some twenty-one other countries or tribes, including Toma, Fumi, Na, Ito, Matsuro, Iki, and Tsushima. This coalition could be seen as the Yamatai Federation or the beginnings of a united Wa polity.
This naturally raises the question: how was Himiko able to become the queen of Yamatai, and not only that, to suppress inter-tribal conflict and forge such a federation?
What kind of power did Himiko possess?
To consider this question, three key factors must be taken into account. First, the global climate was shifting from a warm to a colder and drier phase. Second, rice cultivation was becoming firmly established in Japan. Third, Himiko was described as someone "skilled in the arts of spirit-craft," indicating that she was not merely a queen, but a shaman-queen.
Lining these elements up—"climate cooling and drying" → "establishment of rice farming" → "a shaman-queen skilled in spirit-craft"—a possible answer begins to emerge.
Rice farming, water scarcity, rain rituals...
And yet, it appears Himiko did more than simply pray for rain. No matter how spiritually powerful she may have been, rainmaking was not always guaranteed to succeed.
Take a look at this photograph. It shows the remains of an ancient water management system from the Nango Daito archaeological site in Gose City, dating slightly later than Himiko's era. It also shows a reenactment of a traditional water ritual.
Rather than just praying for rain, Himiko practiced a form of shamanism backed by irrigation technology. It was precisely because she had the civil engineering knowledge to construct irrigation systems that she could become a tribal leader based on rice agriculture. And it wasn't just the technology—she also controlled access to iron, an essential material in that era.
By controlling both "water" and "iron," she was able to ensure stable rice production. Not only that, she likely instructed the member tribes in irrigation rituals and guaranteed iron supplies from the Korean Peninsula.
On this technological foundation, she performed rituals said to include spirit possession, divination, rainmaking, and even curses against enemies. This is how she rose to become a shaman-queen.
Though we cannot ignore the presence of her younger brother, who is said to have assisted with political matters, that alone does not explain her rise. It is possible—though still speculative—that Himiko and her people were refugees from China or the Korean Peninsula, fleeing the chaos of war and bringing advanced technologies with them.
Japan has long been a land that receives migrants and refugees in times of turmoil on the continent.
Some readers may be familiar with the film Apocalypse Now. In it, Colonel Kurtz, a U.S. officer assigned to a secret mission during the Vietnam War, disappears. When soldiers are sent to track him down, they eventually find him deep in the jungle, ruling over a native tribe as a god-like figure, armed with the latest weapons.
You may be wondering—what does that have to do with Himiko?
And yet, I believe something similar may have taken place in ancient Japan.
As we saw earlier with the example of Himiko and Zhuge Liang, our understanding of history is often colored by our present-day perspective, which can lead to serious misconceptions. Upon learning that Himiko and Zhuge Liang lived during the same time, one might mistakenly assume that Japan and China were at the same cultural or technological level. But that was far from the truth.
Descriptions in the Gishi Wajinden paint a very different picture. The route to Yamatai is described as passing through steep mountains and thick forests, with paths so narrow they were said to be used only by wild deer. In some areas, the vegetation was so dense that those walking ahead disappeared from sight.
The text also says, "In this country, all the males, young and old, tattoo their faces and bodies."
Archaeological findings show this as well—such as haniwa figures with whale-like facial tattoos (known as geimen), reconstructed in miniature. These people looked nothing like modern Japanese.
Now, imagine how these communities would have reacted to the sudden appearance of an armed group equipped with iron weapons—people who also possessed the technologies of ironworking, irrigation, and road construction. Perhaps they were remnants of the Yellow Turban Rebellion, who fled China and made their way to Japan. If so, they would have brought with them not only technological skills but also Taoist healing practices involving ritual confession. In Wa, they likely became both builders and healers, quickly gaining influence over neighboring tribes.
Some even suggest that the term "kido" (spirit-craft), which Himiko was said to practice, refers to Taoism. Supporting this theory is the discovery of more than 2,000 peach pits at the Makimuku ruins—now considered the most probable site of Yamatai. In Taoism, peach pits are used in rituals to ward off evil and pray for longevity.
So let us hypothesize: what if Himiko and her clan were refugees from China?
They may have crossed the Korean Peninsula and settled in northern Kyushu. From there, they pacified the surrounding warring tribes and came to dominate Yamatai, with Himiko becoming its shaman-queen. Her younger brother, responsible for governance, may have formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Kibi (present-day Okayama), pushing eastward to establish a Wa federation in the Kinai region.
Eventually, they faced rebellion from the southern Kyushu-based Kunakoku faction, likely over control of iron distribution. During this conflict, Himiko again sent envoys to Wei, which responded by bestowing upon her the "Yellow Banner" (kodō)—a military ensign signifying that she was acting under the protection of the Chinese emperor. Himiko intended to defeat Kunakoku with this imperial backing, but she died in the midst of the campaign.
Does this narrative not remind you of the Tenson Kōrin myth—the descent of the heavenly grandchild?
The descent from Takamagahara could represent migration from the Korean Peninsula. The relationship between Amaterasu and Susanoo might correspond to that between Himiko and her younger brother. What's more, a solar eclipse occurred around the time of Himiko's death—perhaps the origin of the Ama-no-Iwato (Heavenly Rock Cave) myth.
According to the Gishi Wajinden, a male ruler briefly succeeded Himiko, but once again the country fell into chaos. It was only when Toyo (or Iyo)—a female spiritual successor—was enthroned as shaman-queen that peace was restored.
Even after the rise of the Yamato court and the start of the Kofun period, a system known as hime-hiko sei—with female rulers handling religious affairs and male rulers managing politics—appears to have continued for some time.